Cost-effectiveness of weight-management pharmacotherapies in Canada: a societal perspective.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of weight-management pharmacotherapies approved by Canada Health, i.e., orlistat, naltrexone 32 mg/bupropion 360 mg (NB-32), liraglutide 3.0 mg and semaglutide 2.4 mg as compared to the current standard of care (SoC). METHODS: Analyses were conducted using a cohort with a mean starting age 50 years, body mass index (BMI) 37.5 kg/m2, and 27.6% having type 2 diabetes. Using treatment-specific changes in surrogate endpoints from the STEP trials (BMI, glycemic, blood pressure, lipids), besides a network meta-analysis, the occurrence of weight-related complications, costs, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) were projected over lifetime. RESULTS: From a societal perspective, at a willingness-to-pay (WTP) threshold of CAD 50 000 per QALY, semaglutide 2.4 mg was the most cost-effective treatment, at an incremental cost-utility ratio (ICUR) of CAD 31 243 and CAD 29 014 per QALY gained versus the next best alternative, i.e., orlistat, and SoC, respectively. Semaglutide 2.4 mg extendedly dominated other pharmacotherapies such as NB-32 or liraglutide 3.0 mg and remained cost-effective both under a public and private payer perspective. Results were robust to sensitivity analyses varying post-treatment catch-up rates, longer treatment durations and using real-world cohort characteristics. Semaglutide 2.4 mg was the preferred intervention, with a likelihood of 70% at a WTP threshold of CAD 50 000 per QALY gained. However, when the modeled benefits of weight-loss on cancer, mortality, cardiovascular disease (CVD) or osteoarthritis surgeries were removed simultaneously, orlistat emerged as the best value for money compared with SoC, with an ICUR of CAD 35 723 per QALY gained. CONCLUSION: Semaglutide 2.4 mg was the most cost-effective treatment alternative compared with D&E or orlistat alone, and extendedly dominated other pharmacotherapies such as NB-32 or liraglutide 3.0 mg. Results were sensitive to the inclusion of the combined benefits of mortality, cancer, CVD, and knee osteoarthritis.

Long-term cost-effectiveness of interventions for obesity: A mendelian randomisation study.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity has increased in the United Kingdom, and reliably measuring the impact on quality of life and the total healthcare cost from obesity is key to informing the cost-effectiveness of interventions that target obesity, and determining healthcare funding. Current methods for estimating cost-effectiveness of interventions for obesity may be subject to confounding and reverse causation. The aim of this study is to apply a new approach using mendelian randomisation for estimating the cost-effectiveness of interventions that target body mass index (BMI), which may be less affected by confounding and reverse causation than previous approaches. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We estimated health-related quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and both primary and secondary healthcare costs for 310,913 men and women of white British ancestry aged between 39 and 72 years in UK Biobank between recruitment (2006 to 2010) and 31 March 2017. We then estimated the causal effect of differences in BMI on QALYs and total healthcare costs using mendelian randomisation. For this, we used instrumental variable regression with a polygenic risk score (PRS) for BMI, derived using a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of BMI, with age, sex, recruitment centre, and 40 genetic principal components as covariables to estimate the effect of a unit increase in BMI on QALYs and total healthcare costs. Finally, we used simulations to estimate the likely effect on BMI of policy relevant interventions for BMI, then used the mendelian randomisation estimates to estimate the cost-effectiveness of these interventions. A unit increase in BMI decreased QALYs by 0.65% of a QALY (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.49% to 0.81%) per year and increased annual total healthcare costs by £42.23 (95% CI: £32.95 to £51.51) per person. When considering only health conditions usually considered in previous cost-effectiveness modelling studies (cancer, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes), we estimated that a unit increase in BMI decreased QALYs by only 0.16% of a QALY (95% CI: 0.10% to 0.22%) per year. We estimated that both laparoscopic bariatric surgery among individuals with BMI greater than 35 kg/m2, and restricting volume promotions for high fat, salt, and sugar products, would increase QALYs and decrease total healthcare costs, with net monetary benefits (at £20,000 per QALY) of £13,936 (95% CI: £8,112 to £20,658) per person over 20 years, and £546 million (95% CI: £435 million to £671 million) in total per year, respectively. The main limitations of this approach are that mendelian randomisation relies on assumptions that cannot be proven, including the absence of directional pleiotropy, and that genotypes are independent of confounders. CONCLUSIONS: Mendelian randomisation can be used to estimate the impact of interventions on quality of life and healthcare costs. We observed that the effect of increasing BMI on health-related quality of life is much larger when accounting for 240 chronic health conditions, compared with only a limited selection. This means that previous cost-effectiveness studies have likely underestimated the effect of BMI on quality of life and, therefore, the potential cost-effectiveness of interventions to reduce BMI.

Bariatric surgery is expensive but improves co-morbidity: 5-year assessment of patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Bariatric surgery can be effective in weight reduction and diabetes remission in some patients, but is expensive. The costs of bariatric surgery in patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) were explored here. METHODS: Population-based retrospectively gathered data on patients with obesity and T2DM from the Hong Kong Hospital Authority (2006-2017) were evaluated. Direct medical costs from baseline up to 60 months were calculated based on the frequency of healthcare service utilization and dispensing of diabetes medication. Charlson Co-morbidity Index (CCI) scores and co-morbidity rates were measured to compare changes in co-morbidities between surgically treated and control groups over 5 years. One-to-five propensity score matching was applied. RESULTS: Overall, 401 eligible surgical patients were matched with 1894 non-surgical patients. Direct medical costs were much higher for surgical than non-surgical patients in the index year (€36 752 and €5788 respectively; P < 0·001) mainly owing to the bariatric procedure. The 5-year cumulative costs incurred by surgical patients were also higher (€54 135 versus €28 603; P < 0·001). Although patients who had bariatric surgery had more visits to outpatient and allied health professionals than those who did not across the 5-year period, surgical patients had shorter length of stay in hospitals than non-surgical patients in year 2-5. Surgical patients had significantly better CCI scores than controls after the baseline measurement (mean 3·82 versus 4·38 at 5 years; P = 0·016). Costs of glucose-lowering medications were similar between two groups, except that surgical patients had significantly lower costs of glucose-lowering medications in year 2 (€973 versus €1395; P = 0.012). CONCLUSION: Bariatric surgery in obese patients with T2DM is expensive, but leads to an improved co-morbidity profile, and reduced length of hospitalization.

Costs of cancer attributable to excess body weight in the Brazilian public health system in 2018.

OBJECTIVES: The prevalence of excess body weight (EBW) has increased over the last decades in Brazil, where 55.4% of the adult population was overweight in 2019. EBW is a well-known risk factor for several types of cancer. We estimated the federal cost of EBW-related cancers in adults, considering the medical expenditures in the Brazilian Public Health System. METHODS: We calculated the costs related to 11 types of cancer considering the procedures performed in 2018 by all organizations that provide cancer care in the public health system. We obtained data from the Hospital and Ambulatory Information Systems of the Brazilian Public Health System. We calculated the fractions of cancer attributable to EBW using the relative risks from the literature and prevalence from a nationally representative survey. We converted the monetary values in Reais (R$) to international dollars (Int$), considering the purchasing power parity (PPP) of 2018. RESULTS: In Brazil, the 2018 federal cost for all types of cancers combined was Int$ 1.73 billion, of which nearly Int$ 710 million was spent on EBW-related cancer care and Int$ 30 million was attributable to EBW. Outpatient and inpatient expenditures reached Int$ 20.41 million (of which 80% was for chemotherapy) and Int$ 10.06 million (of which 82% was for surgery), respectively. Approximately 80% of EBW-attributable costs were due to breast, endometrial and colorectal cancers. CONCLUSION: A total of 1.76% of all federal cancer-related costs could be associated with EBW, representing a substantial economic burden for the public health system. We highlight the need for integrated policies for excess body weight control and cancer prevention.

Pharmacoeconomics of obesity in China: a scoping review.

Background: With the growing rate of obesity and associated chronic conditions in China, there is a need to assess the health and economic burdens of obesity and examine the effectiveness of pharmaceutical, medical, and comprehensive weight-loss interventions.Areas covered: This article reviewed publications retrieved from PubMed and Google Scholar during 2010-2020 on pharmacoeconomic studies related to overweight and obesity in China. We identified five cost-of-illness studies and four cost-effectiveness analyses of weight-loss interventions, including bariatric surgeries and a comprehensive intervention program.Expert opinion: There is a lack of pharmacoeconomic analyses of obesity in China. Existing studies have often taken the health system perspective without accounting for productivity loss. Cohort studies and studies based on electronic health records or claims data are needed to provide the epidemiologic parameters required for homegrown economic evaluations of the health and economic burdens of obesity in China, as well as the cost-effectiveness of interventions to reduce obesity and its sequela.

Forecasting the type 2 diabetes mellitus epidemic and the role of key risk factors in Oman up to 2050: Mathematical modeling analyses.

AIMS/INTRODUCTION: To investigate and forecast type 2 diabetes mellitus epidemic, its related risk factors and cost in Oman by 2050. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An age-structured mathematical model was used to characterize type 2 diabetes mellitus epidemiology and trends in Oman between 1990 and 2050. The model was parametrized using current and quality data, including six nationally representative population-based epidemiological surveys for type 2 diabetes mellitus and its key risk factors. RESULTS: The projected type 2 diabetes mellitus prevalence increased from 15.2% in 2020 to 23.8% in 2050. The prevalence increased from 16.8 and 13.8% in 2020 among women and men to 26.3 and 21.4% in 2050, respectively. In 2020, 190,489 Omanis were living with type 2 diabetes mellitus compared with 570,227 in 2050. The incidence rate per 1,000 person-years changed from 8.3 in 2020 to 12.1 in 2050. Type 2 diabetes mellitus' share of Oman's national health expenditure grew by 36% between 2020 and 2050 (from 21.2 to 28.8%). Obesity explained 56.7% of type 2 diabetes mellitus cases in 2020 and 71.4% in 2050, physical inactivity explained 4.3% in 2020 and 2.7% in 2050, whereas smoking accounted for <1% of type 2 diabetes mellitus cases throughout 2020-2050. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses affirmed these predictions. CONCLUSIONS: The type 2 diabetes mellitus epidemic in Oman is expected to increase significantly over the next three decades, consuming nearly one-third of the national health expenditure. The type 2 diabetes mellitus burden is heavily influenced by obesity. Interventions targeting this single risk factor should be a national priority to reduce and control the burden of type 2 diabetes mellitus in Oman.

Economic value of nonsurgical weight loss in adults with obesity.

BACKGROUND: Obesity imposes a substantial economic burden on the United States. The short-term value of nonsurgical weight loss (WL) and nonsurgical sustained WL (i.e., WL not resulting from bariatric surgery) is poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: To assess short-term (1 year) effect of nonsurgical WL and sustained nonsurgical WL (i.e., approximately 2 years) on per-patient-per-month (PPPM) total all-cause health care costs among adults with obesity in the United States. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we analyzed data from the IBM MarketScan Explorys Claims-EMR Data Set from January 1, 2012, through June 30, 2018. Adults aged 18-64 years with a body mass index (BMI) measurement ≥ 30 kg/m2 on the index date and BMI measurements at 12, 24, and 36 months were classified into weight-gain (≥ 3%), no-weight-change (within ± 3%), and WL (≥ 3%-≤ 5%, > 5%-≤ 10%, and > 10%-≤ 20%) cohorts based on the change from first to second BMI measurements (baseline), and sustained nonsurgical WL based on WL during baseline and < 3% weight gain from second to third BMI measurement. PPPM all-cause health care costs were calculated for baseline, first year, and second year of follow-up. Generalized linear models were used to examine if PPPM all-cause health care cost change (ΔPPPM) from baseline to follow-up differed significantly between nonsurgical WL/sustained WL and no-weight-change cohorts. Analyses were stratified by index obesity class (class 1: BMI 30- < 34.9 kg/m2, class 2: BMI 35- < 39.9 kg/m2, class 3: BMI ≥ 40 kg/m2). Specific nonsurgical WL treatments used by individuals in the study were not studied. RESULTS: The sample included 20,488 adults who were grouped as follows: weight-gain cohort (24.8%), no-weight-change cohort (56.6%), ≥ 3%- ≤ 5% WL cohort (8.2%), > 5%- ≤ 10% WL cohort (7.7%), and > 10%- ≤ 20% WL cohort (2.8%). Compared with the no-weight-change cohort, adjusted mean ΔPPPM all-cause health care cost from baseline to first year of follow-up was lower in all WL cohorts (≥ 3%- ≤ 5% WL: -$57.36, > 5%- ≤ 10% WL: -$135.35 [P < 0.05], > 10%- ≤ 20% WL: -$193.54 [P < 0.05]). In the second year of follow-up (n = 15,307), the cohorts were weight-gain (43.4%), no-weight-change (59.4%), ≥ 3%- ≤ 5% sustained WL (7.3%), ≥ 5%- ≤ 10% sustained WL (6.3%), and > 10%- ≤ 20% sustained WL (1.8%). Adjusted mean ΔPPPM all-cause health care cost was lower in all sustained WL groups (-$26.38, -$157.41 [P < 0.05], and -$185.41 for ≥ 3%- ≤ 5%, ≥ 5%- ≤ 10%, and > 10%- ≤ 20% WL, respectively). Greater nonsurgical WL and sustained nonsurgical WL were generally associated with larger reduction in short-term all-cause health care costs. Results stratified by index obesity class were mixed, due to small samples. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial all-cause health care cost savings were observed 1 year after nonsurgical WL and after sustained (on average for 2 years) nonsurgical WL in adults with obesity, with greater nonsurgical WL and sustained nonsurgical WL associated with greater cost savings. Comprehensive solutions to chronic weight management, including improved access to antiobesity medications in combination with lifestyle interventions, could be valuable to patients, employers, and payers. DISCLOSURES: This study was sponsored by Novo Nordisk, which also purchased the data. Blanchette is an employee of Novo Nordisk. Smolarz and Ramasamy are employees of Novo Nordisk and hold equity in Novo Nordisk. Ding, Fan, and Weng were employees of Novo Nordisk at the time this study was conducted. The findings from this study were previously presented at Obesity Week 2019; November 3-7, 2019; Las Vegas, NV.

Complication-specific direct medical costs by body mass index for 13 obesity-related complications: a retrospective database study.

BACKGROUND: Obesity, a multifactorial disease associated with many severe complications, affects more than 40% of adults in the United States. OBJECTIVE: To quantify the cost burden of 13 obesity-related complications (ORCs), overall and by body mass index (BMI) class. METHODS: Adult patients (aged ≥ 18 years) with ≥ 1 medical claim with an ICD-9/10 diagnosis code for the ORC of interest were identified using linked data from IQVIA's Ambulatory Electronic Medical Records and PharMetrics Plus. Thirteen ORCs were separately assessed (asthma, dyslipidemia, gastroesophageal reflux disease [GERD], heart failure with preserved ejection fraction [HFpEF], hypertension, musculoskeletal pain, obstructive sleep apnea [OSA], osteoarthritis [OA] of the knee, polycystic ovary syndrome [PCOS], prediabetes, psoriasis, type 2 diabetes mellitus [T2DM], and urinary incontinence); ORC cohorts were not mutually exclusive. For each ORC, the first claim identified for the ORC from January 2010-December 2016 was termed the index date. Patients had continuous enrollment in the 1-year pre-index (without a diagnosis code of the specific ORC under study) and the 1-year post-index, with ≥ 1 BMI value in the 6-months pre-index. Patients with underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2) and those with cancer or pregnancy were excluded. Complication-specific costs were identified as claims with a diagnosis code for the ORC (primary position only for hospitalizations) or ORC-specific medications or procedures. Baseline demographic/clinical characteristics and complication-specific costs over the 1-year follow-up were assessed for each ORC cohort, overall and by BMI class (18.5-24.9; 25.0-29.9; 30.0-34.9; 35.0-39.9; ≥ 40 kg/m2). The association between total complication-specific costs and BMI class was assessed by generalized linear regression model for each ORC, adjusting for baseline characteristics. RESULTS: The total number of patients that comprised the ORC cohorts ranged from 1,275 (HFpEF) to 101,784 (musculoskeletal pain). Across ORC cohorts, 41.6% (musculoskeletal pain) to 73.5% (OSA) had obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2). For 4 ORC cohorts, more than one fifth of patients had class III obesity (BMI ≥ 40 kg/m2): T2DM, OSA, PCOS, and HFpEF. Baseline mean Charlson Comorbidity Index score increased with increasing BMI class for most ORC cohorts. The most costly ORCs overall based on mean total 1-year cost were: OA of the knee ($3,697 [range from normal weight (BMI: 18.5-24.9 kg/m2) to class III obesity: $2,453-$4,518]), HFpEF ($3,586 [range: $3,402-$4,685]), OSA ($2,768 [$2,442-$2,974]), and psoriasis ($2,711 [$2,131-$3,292]). The highest cost differences (≥20%) were observed among those with class III obesity versus those with normal weight for these aforementioned ORCs, as well as for GERD ($1,719 [$1,484-$1,893]) and asthma ($1,531 [$1,361-$1,780]). Following adjustment, most cost comparisons by BMI class were significantly higher versus those for normal weight for 6 ORCs. CONCLUSIONS: ORCs are important drivers of the economic burden of obesity, indicating an unmet need for the treatment of obesity. Appropriate weight management may reduce ORC-associated costs. DISCLOSURES: This study and its publication were supported by Novo Nordisk. Divino, Anupindi, and DeKoven are employed by IQVIA, which received funding from Novo Nordisk for this study. Ramasamy, Eriksen, Olsen, and Meincke are employed by and shareholders of Novo Nordisk. Material reported in this manuscript was presented in an abstract accepted by the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research (ISPOR) 2020, to be published in Value in Health. There was no presentation at ISPOR 2020.

Bariatric surgery for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus requiring insulin: Clinical outcome and cost-effectiveness analyses.

BACKGROUND: Although bariatric surgery is well established as an effective treatment for patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), there exists reluctance to increase its availability for patients with severe T2DM. The aims of this study were to examine the impact of bariatric surgery on T2DM resolution in patients with obesity and T2DM requiring insulin (T2DM-Ins) using data from a national database and to develop a health economic model to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of surgery in this cohort when compared to best medical treatment (BMT). METHODS AND FINDINGS: Clinical data from the National Bariatric Surgical Registry (NBSR), a comprehensive database of bariatric surgery in the United Kingdom, were extracted to analyse outcomes of patients with obesity and T2DM-Ins who underwent primary bariatric surgery between 2009 and 2017. Outcomes for this group were combined with data sourced from a comprehensive literature review in order to develop a state-transition microsimulation model to evaluate cost-effectiveness of bariatric surgery versus BMT for patients over a 5-year time horizon. The main outcome measure for the clinical study was insulin cessation at 1-year post-surgery: relative risks (RR) summarising predictive factors were determined, unadjusted, and after adjusting for variables including age, initial body mass index (BMI), duration of T2DM, and weight loss. Main outcome measures for the economic evaluation were total costs, total quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) at willingness-to-pay threshold of GBP£20,000. A total of 2,484 patients were eligible for inclusion, of which 1,847 had 1-year follow-up data (mean age of 51 years, mean initial BMI 47.2 kg/m2, and 64% female). 67% of patients no longer required insulin at 1-year postoperatively: these rates persisted for 4 years. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) was associated with a higher rate of insulin cessation (71.7%) than sleeve gastrectomy (SG; 64.5%; RR 0.92, confidence interval (CI) 0.86-0.99) and adjustable gastric band (AGB; 33.6%; RR 0.45, CI 0.34-0.60; p < 0.001). When adjusted for percentage total weight loss and demographic variables, insulin cessation following surgery was comparable for RYGB and SG (RR 0.97, CI 0.90-1.04), with AGB having the lowest cessation rates (RR 0.55, CI 0.40-0.74; p < 0.001). Over 5 years, bariatric surgery was cost saving compared to BMT (total cost GBP£22,057 versus GBP£26,286 respectively, incremental difference GBP£4,229). This was due to lower treatment costs as well as reduced diabetes-related complications costs and increased health benefits. Limitations of this study include loss to follow-up of patients within the NBSR dataset and that the time horizon for the economic analysis is limited to 5 years. In addition, the study reflects current medical and surgical treatment regimens for this cohort of patients, which may change. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we observed that in patients with obesity and T2DM-Ins, bariatric surgery was associated with high rates of postoperative cessation of insulin therapy, which is, in turn, a major driver of overall reductions in direct healthcare cost. Our findings suggest that a strategy utilising bariatric surgery for patients with obesity and T2DM-Ins is cost saving to the national healthcare provider (National Health Service (NHS)) over a 5-year time horizon.

In-patient obesity diagnosis, use of surgical treatment and associated costs by payer type in the United States: Analysis of the National Inpatient Sample, 2011 through 2014.

This study aims to examine the trend in the diagnosis of obesity and the use of surgical treatment in in-patient settings as well as per person and national costs associated with the surgical treatment of obesity. We conducted cross-sectional and trend analyses of in-patient obesity diagnosis and surgical treatment for obesity using data from the National Inpatient Sample (2011-2014) of adult patients in the United States aged 18 years and older. We studied the rate of in-patient obesity diagnosis among hospitalized patients, the rate of bariatric surgery among patients diagnosed with obesity in the hospital, and the costs associated with surgical treatment. Trend analyses showed a statistically significant increase in the proportion of (a) hospitalized patients diagnosed with obesity, and (b) bariatric surgery among those diagnosed with obesity and among different socio-demographic and insurance groups. Despite the increase in the national in-patient cost, the average in-patient cost per hospitalization associated with bariatric surgery decreased from 2012 to 2014. With the increase in the rate of diagnosed obesity and bariatric surgery among hospitalized patients and the decrease in the average in-patient cost, future research should address the short- and long-term cost-effectiveness of bariatric surgery on chronic diseases.

Health and financial burden of adverse childhood experiences in England and Wales: a combined primary data study of five surveys.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the health and financial burden of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in England and Wales. DESIGN: The study combined data from five randomly stratified cross-sectional ACE studies. Population attributable fractions (PAFs) were calculated for major health risks and causes of ill health and applied to disability adjusted life years (DALYs), with financial costs estimated using a modified human capital method. SETTING: Households in England and Wales. PARTICIPANTS: 15 285 residents aged 18-69. OUTCOME MEASURES: The outcome measures were PAFs for single (1 ACE) and multiple (2-3 and ≥4 ACEs) ACE exposure categories for four health risks (smoking, alcohol use, drug use, high body mass index) and nine causes of ill health (cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, violence, anxiety, depression, other mental illness); and annual estimated DALYs and financial costs attributable to ACEs. RESULTS: Cumulative relationships were found between ACEs and risks of all outcomes. For health risks, PAFs for ACEs were highest for drug use (Wales 58.8%, England 52.6%), although ACE-attributable smoking had the highest estimated costs (England and Wales, £7.8 billion). For causes of ill health, PAFs for ACEs were highest for violence (Wales 48.9%, England 43.4%) and mental illness (ranging from 29.1% for anxiety in England to 49.7% for other mental illness in Wales). The greatest ACE-attributable costs were for mental illness (anxiety, depression and other mental illness; England and Wales, £11.2 billion) and cancer (£7.9 billion). Across all outcomes, the total annual ACE-attributable cost was estimated at £42.8 billion. The majority of costs related to exposures to multiple rather than a single ACE (ranging from 71.9% for high body mass index to 98.3% for cancer). CONCLUSIONS: ACEs impose a substantial societal burden in England and Wales. Policies and practices that prevent ACEs, build resilience and develop trauma-informed services are needed to reduce burden of disease and avoidable service use and financial costs across health and other sectors.

Cost variance across obesity class for women undergoing laparoscopic hysterectomy by high-volume gynecologic surgeons.

Health-care costs are affected by obesity with both the direct and indirect costs of health care increasing as body mass index (BMI) increases. However, one important aspect of obesity that lacks rigorous study is what impact BMI has on direct surgical cost. We performed a retrospective cohort study of women undergoing a laparoscopic hysterectomy at our single academic university center between January 2012 and December 2017. Women were excluded if their surgery was performed by anyone other than those surgeons with subspecialty training in minimally invasive gynecologic surgery (MIGS), if their hysterectomy was performed by a modality other than conventional laparoscopy or with robotic assistance, or if the indication for hysterectomy was related to any gynecologic malignancy. We identified 600 patients who underwent laparoscopic hysterectomy during the study period. Women who underwent robotic hysterectomy, compared to laparoscopic, had a shorter operative time, lower estimated blood loss, and shorter length of stay. Mean direct cost (± standard deviation) for the cohort was $6398.53 ± $2304.67, age was 44.5 ± 7.5 years, and BMI was 32.2 ± 7.6. Direct cost for all laparoscopic hysterectomies was evaluated across the five different BMI quintiles and no significant difference between groups was found. There was no significant difference in direct cost across procedures between obese and non-obese patients (p = 0.62) and this remained true when separated out by surgical modality. However, when evaluating morbidly obese patients, there appears to be a trend toward cost reduction with robotic hysterectomy compared to conventional laparoscopy. It does not appear that BMI has a statistically significant impact on direct cost between robotic-assisted and conventional laparoscopic hysterectomy. However, these findings may be due to surgical proficiency and warrant further investigation among surgeons with lesser volume.

Economic evaluation of surgical treatment of obesity. / Evaluación económica del tratamiento quirúrgico de la obesidad.

INTRODUCTION: Obesity surgery is the best treatment for extreme obesity, with demonstrated long-term positive outcomes. The potential cost-savings generated by the improvement of comorbidities after surgery can justify the allocation of more resources in the surgical treatment of obesity. METHODS: This was an observational, descriptive, longitudinal and retrospective study. Eligible patients underwent Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery at the Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias between 2003 and 2012. The established minimum follow-up period was two years. We calculated the individualized cost per patient treated (bottom-up) as well as per Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG) codes (top-down). RESULTS: Our study included 307 patients. The average cost per hospitalization calculated by DRG codes was €6,545.90, and the average cost per patient was €10,572.20. DRG 288 represented 91% of the series, with a value of €4,631. The number of medications also decreased during this period, from 2.86 to 0.78 per medically treated patient, representing a cost reduction of €4,433 per patient with all the obesity-related comorbidities analyzed. CONCLUSIONS: Two years after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass conducted at Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, the savings in drug costs for patients with multiple pathologies would compensate the inherent costs of the surgical treatment itself. Our results showed that DRG-related costs was insufficient to make a correct economic evaluation, so we recommend an individualized cost calculating method.

Cost-benefit Analysis in Health Care: The Case of Bariatric Surgery Compared With Diet.

PURPOSE: The aim of the present study was to assess, by using a cost-benefit analysis, the net monetary benefit (NMB) of bariatric surgery compared with diet (including physical exercise) for obese patients, from both an Italian payer perspective and the broader societal perspective. METHODS: The study considered the following groups of patients: (1) patients with a body mass index (BMI) ≥40 kg/m2 without complications + patients with BMI ≥35 kg/m2 with complications; (2) patients with BMI ≥35 kg/m2 and diabetes; and (3) patients with BMI ranging from 30 to 35 kg/m2 and diabetes. A Markov model was developed to project the lifetime health outcomes (life years and quality-adjusted life years [QALYs]) and costs associated with bariatric surgery and diet for the considered groups of patients. The clinical effectiveness of each strategy was based on the likelihood of experiencing cardiovascular events or events related to the presence of diabetes. Data on clinical effectiveness, quality of life, productivity losses, and out-of-pocket costs were mainly derived from the literature; direct costs were obtained from official tariffs or the literature. Different scenarios were considered for the analyses in addition to the base case. According to both perspectives considered, the NMB was calculated by first assuming a willingness-to-pay threshold (30,000€ per QALY), then converting health benefits (QALYs) into the common monetary metric (ie, the euro). NMB was calculated as follows: (incremental benefit × willingness-to-pay - incremental cost). FINDINGS: For all the scenarios and groups of patients considered, the NMB of bariatric surgery versus diet, on a lifetime horizon, from the payer perspective was positive and ranged from 54,647€ to 122,960€; it varied between 141,192€ and 380,286€ from the societal perspective. In the former case, the NMB turns positive after 3-4 years, indicating that bariatric surgery may be a worthy investment also in the short run for the National Health Service; in the latter case, for a time horizon longer than 2-3 years, the surgical option begins to show advantages for the whole society. IMPLICATIONS: Despite its defined cost-effectiveness, bariatric surgery is under-diffused because the initial investment for the technology is often considered a barrier. The cost-benefit analysis showed that bariatric surgery, compared with diet, may be a worthwhile technology for obese patients in Italy from both a payer perspective and the broader societal perspective.

Adult health burden and costs in California during 2013 associated with prior adverse childhood experiences.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the adult health burden and costs in California during 2013 associated with adults' prior Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). METHODS: We analyzed five ACEs-linked conditions (asthma, arthritis, COPD, depression, and cardiovascular disease) and three health risk factors (lifetime smoking, heavy drinking, and obesity). We estimated ACEs-associated fractions of disease risk for people aged 18+ for these conditions by ACEs exposure using inputs from a companion study of California Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data for 2008-2009, 2011, and 2013. We combined these estimates with published estimates of personal healthcare spending and Disability-Adjusted-Life-Years (DALYs) in the United States by condition during 2013. DALYs captured both the years of healthy life lost to disability and the years of life lost to deaths during 2013. We applied a published estimate of cost per DALY. RESULTS: Among adults in California, 61% reported ACEs. Those ACEs were associated with $10.5 billion in excess personal healthcare spending during 2013, and 434,000 DALYs valued at approximately $102 billion dollars. During 2013, the estimated health burden per exposed adult included $589 in personal healthcare expenses and 0.0224 DALYs valued at $5,769. CONCLUSIONS: Estimates of the costs of childhood adversity are far greater than previously understood and provide a fiscal rationale for prevention efforts.

Bariatric surgery is a cost-saving treatment for obesity-A comprehensive meta-analysis and updated systematic review of health economic evaluations of bariatric surgery.

Demand for bariatric surgery to treat severe and resistant obesity far outstrips supply. We aimed to comprehensively synthesise health economic evidence regarding bariatric surgery from 1995 to 2018 (PROSPERO registration number: CRD42018094189). Meta-analyses were conducted to calculate the annual cost changes "before" and "after" surgery, and cumulative cost differences between surgical and nonsurgical groups. An updated narrative review also summarized the full and partial health economic evaluations of surgery from September 2015. N = 101 studies were eligible for the qualitative analyses since 1995, with n = 24 studies after September 2015. Quality of reporting has increased, and the inclusion of complications/reoperations was predominantly contained in the full economic evaluations after September 2015. Technical improvements in surgery were also reflected across the studies. Sixty-one studies were eligible for the quantitative meta-analyses. Compared with no/conventional treatment, surgery was cost saving over a lifetime scenario. Additionally, consideration of indirect costs through sensitivity analyses increased cost savings. Medication cost savings were dominant in the before versus after meta-analysis. Overall, bariatric surgery is cost saving over the life course even without considering indirect costs. Health economists are hearing the call to present higher quality studies and include the costs of complications/reoperations; however, indirect costs and body contouring surgery are still not appropriately considered.

The effect of bariatric surgery on health care costs: A synthetic control approach using Bayesian structural time series.

Surgical measures to combat obesity are very effective in terms of weight loss, recovery from diabetes, and improvement in cardiovascular risk factors. However, previous studies found both positive and negative results regarding the effect of bariatric surgery on health care utilization. Using claims data from the largest health insurance provider in Germany, we estimated the causal effect of bariatric surgery on health care costs in a time period ranging from 2 years before to 3 years after bariatric intervention. Owing to the absence of a control group, we employed a Bayesian structural forecasting model to construct a synthetic control. We observed a decrease in medication and physician expenditures after bariatric surgery, whereas hospital expenditures increased in the post-intervention period. Overall, we found a slight increase in total costs after bariatric surgery, but our estimates include a high degree of uncertainty.

Change in overweight and obesity over a decade according to sociodemographic factors in Brazilian adolescents / Mudança no sobrepeso e obesidade após uma década de acordo com fatores sociodemográficos em adolescentes brasileiros

Abstract The aims were to examine changes in the prevalence of overweight and obesity among students from 2001 to 2011, and to verify if these changes differ according to age group, area of residence, and family income. We analyzed two cross-sectional surveys conducted in 2001 and 2011 with brazilian adolescents. Sociodemographic and anthropometric characteristics were self-reported using a questionnaire. Multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze changes in overweight and obesity between the two surveys. The nutritional status was the outcome of the present study and the surveys (2001 and 2011) were the exposure. The odds of being overweight and obese were higher among boys and girls in urban areas in the 2011 survey compared to the 2001. Boys and girls with higher income were also more likely to present overweight and obesity in the second survey compared to the first. An increase of overweight and obesity was observed over a decade. We suggest that future interventions consider the area of residence and the family income to strengthen the effectiveness of actions developed to prevent and control these indicators among adolescents.

Resumo Os objetivos do estudo foram examinar as mudanças na prevalência de sobrepeso e obesidade entre os estudantes de 2001 a 2011 e verificar se essas alterações diferem de acordo com a faixa etária, a área de residência e a renda familiar. Analisamos dois levantamentos transversais realizados em 2001 e 2011 com adolescentes brasileiros. As características sociodemográficas e antropométricas foram autorrelatadas por meio de um questionário. Regressão logística multinomial foi utilizada para analisar as mudanças no sobrepeso e obesidade entre os dois inquéritos. O estado nutricional foi considerado o desfecho do presente estudo e os inquéritos (2001 e 2011) foram as exposições. As razões de chance de sobrepeso e obesidade foram maiores entre os meninos e meninas em áreas urbanas no inquérito de 2011 em comparação com 2001. Meninos e meninas com maior renda também apresentaram maior chance de sobrepeso e obesidade no segundo inquérito. Sugerimos que futuras intervenções considerem a área de residência e a renda familiar para fortalecer a eficácia das ações desenvolvidas para prevenir e controlar esses indicadores entre os adolescentes.

The economic cost of preventable disease in Australia: a systematic review of estimates and methods.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this literature review was to establish the economic burden of preventable disease in Australia in terms of attributable health care costs, other costs to government and reduced productivity. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted to establish the economic cost of preventable disease in Australia and ascertain the methods used to derive these estimates. Nine databases and the grey literature were searched, limited to the past 10 years, and the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines were followed to identify, screen and report on eligible studies. RESULTS: Eighteen studies were included. There were at least three studies examining the attributable costs and economic impact for each risk factor. The greatest costs were related to the productivity impacts of preventable risk factors. Estimates of the annual productivity loss that could be attributed to individual risk factors were between $840 million and $14.9 billion for obesity; up to $10.5 billion due to tobacco; between $1.1 billion and $6.8 billion for excess alcohol consumption; up to $15.6 billion due to physical inactivity and $561 million for individual dietary risk factors. Productivity impacts were included in 15 studies and the human capital approach was the method most often employed (14 studies) to calculate this. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial economic burden is caused by lifestyle-related risk factors. Implications for public health: The significant economic burden associated with preventable disease provides an economic rationale for action to reduce the prevalence of lifestyle-related risk factors. New analysis of the economic burden of multiple risk factors concurrently is needed.

Cost-Utility of Laparoscopic Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass in Chinese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity with a BMI ≥ 27.5 kg/m2: a Multi-Center Study with a 4-Year Follow-Up of Surgical Cohort.

OBJECTIVES: To find whether Laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery was cost effective compared to conventional medical management (CMM) in Chinese patients with type 2 Diabetes(T2D) and obesity with a body mass index (BMI) ≥27.5 kg/m2 in four years. METHODS: A total of 106 obese T2D individuals who underwent RYGB and 106 T2D patients treated with CMM were enrolled from three academic medical centers. Total health related costs, Glycated Hemoglobin A1c (A1C) and BMI was recorded. Cost-Utility Analysis (CUA) was used. Utility values according to results of A1c were obtained from published studies. RESULTS: Improvements were observed in A1C (8.6% at baseline to 6.2% in the first year, p < 0.001) and BMI (30.7 kg/m2 at baseline to 24.3 kg/m2 in the first year, p < 0.001), and the effect lasted for 4 years after RYGB. In the CMM group, A1C fluctuated in four years. The health utility for RYGB group scores 3.756, whereas CMM group scores 3.594 in four years. The total healthcare costs decreased sharply from the second year after RYGB ($8,483 [¥52,596] in the first year to $672[¥4,164] in the second year, p < 0.001) and maintained for 3 years. In the CMM group, the total healthcare costs changed without significance. RYGB costs US$19,359 (¥125,836) per quality-adjusted life years (QALY) gained (incremental cost-utility ratio [ICUR]) compared to CMM, which was lower than a willingness-to-pay (WTP) of $20,277/QALY. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to CMM, RYGB is cost-effective for Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes and obesity 4 years after operation.